All surface images in Insight3D are placed on the Earth where the edges of the image align with latitudinal and longitudinal lines and the top edge is north. Several customers have asked if they could map an image where that is not the case, where they have the latitude and longitude coordinates of each corner.
Fig. 1 shows an image captured from the viewpoint of a simulated UAV camera. While the image itself is exactly as it was, the image is not correctly positioned on the terrain. As mentioned, the image edges align with latitudinal and longitudinal lines.
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| Fig. 1 |
In fig. 2, the image’s corners have been mapped from their original coordinates to their actual coordinates. One can tell that the camera took this image from the southwest.
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| Fig. 2 |
This capability has been added to Insight3D’s Surface Mesh Primitive for our upcoming r8 release. I’ll wait until r8 is out to discuss the new interfaces and how this method differs from projecting an image onto the terrain.
In this post, I’ll discuss how we use OpenGL to remap the image of fig. 1 to that of fig. 2.
Perspective Texture Projection
The goal is to remap the texture coordinates from one trapezoid to another. Let’s begin with an example. Fig 3a shows an image, a blue square with a red border, mapped to a square, while the other figures show a remapping of that square to a trapezoid with an outline of the original square shown as reference.
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| a. Original b. Orthographic c. Perspective |
| Fig. 3 |
One obvious way to map to the trapezoid would be to just move the vertices. In fig 3b, the vertex positions have been moved while the texture coordinates remain that same as in fig 3a. This results in an orthographic projection where the texture coordinates are linearly interpolated across the trapezoid. Given that we want a perspective projection, this is incorrect.
In fig 3c, the vertex positions have been moved, and the texture coordinates have been altered. This trapezoid appears to be a rectangle closer to the viewer on the left side and farther away on the right; however, the trapezoid is actually in a plane perpendicular to the viewer, i.e. flat to your display. A perspective transform has been applied to the texture coordinates. This is how the UAV image should be placed onto the terrain. How is this transform computed?
The Texture Matrix
A texture coordinate is defined by the vector (s, t, r, q). Most graphics developers are familiar with using s and t to map a 2D texture to a triangle; in this case, r and q default to 0 and 1 respectively. The value r is used for 3D textures and so is ignored here. I’ll get to q in a moment.
In the OpenGL fixed function pipeline, each texture coordinate (s, t, r, q) is multiplied by a 4x4 texture matrix as shown in eq. 1.
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| Eq. 1 |
Since OpenGL interprets (s’, t’, r’, q’) as a homogeneous coordinate, s’, t’, and r’ are next divided by q’ as shown in eqs. 2, 3 and 4. This is the perspective divide, and is necessary to produce fig 3c.
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| Eqs. 2, 3, 4 |
Coordinate (s’’, t’’, r’’) is used to sample the texture. For a 2D texture, only s’’ and t’’ are used.
Computing the Texture Matrix
Remapping requires a texture matrix that maps (s, t) in fig 3c to (s’’, t’’) in fig. 3a.
Since only a 2D texture is being considered, the 3D components of the matrix and vectors are zeroed out; m44 is set to 1 as this is a homogenous matrix; m33 is inconsequential as that value is multiplied by 0 in the matrix multiplication.
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| Eq. 5 |
After multiplication,
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| Eqs. 6, 7 , 8 |
After multiplying both sides of eqs. 2 and 3 by q’, and then plugging in eqs. 6, 7, and 8,
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| Eqs. 9, 10 |
Eqs. 9 and 10 are rearranged to form two linear equations.
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| Eqs. 11, 12 |
There are eight unknown matrix components to solve. The mapping for the corners to go from figs. 3c to 3a are:
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| Fig 4. |
This yields eight equations with eight unknowns. Using a linear equation solver, the texture matrix can be computed.
Applying the Texture Matrix
If you are using the OpenGL fixed function pipeline, after loading this matrix to the OpenGL matrix stack, there are two basic ways to render the texture and geometry.
You can move the vertex positions and use the (s, t) texture coordinates.
Alternatively, you could keep the original vertex positions and (s’’, t’’) texture coordinates. You will have to specify a border color for the texture.
float borderColor[4] = {126.0f, 126.0f, 126.0f, 0.0f}; glTexParameterfv(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_BORDER_COLOR, borderColor); glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_S, GL_CLAMP_TO_BORDER); glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_T, GL_CLAMP_TO_BORDER);
When rendering, you must enable the alpha test.
glAlphaFunc(GL_GREATER, 0.0f); glEnable(GL_ALPHA_TEST);
If you do not, the texture will bleed beyond its border as shown in fig. 5.
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| Fig. 5 |
Of course if you are using shaders instead of the fixed function pipeline, you can still easily do either way. There are various other combinations that will work too.
Our unique method for rendering the surface mesh primitive requires that we use the second method.
Footnoticed
Benjamin Supnik’s blog posts on this topic here and here were very helpful. He explains much of what I have and more. Hopefully though, I have added to understanding this topic.
Interesting! Thank you for sharing. Can you feed details about “various other combinations that will work too.”? Again, thank you.
I tried this but I still got some texture bleed, perhaps I got some of the combinations mixed up?
This is just like the image I get when I surf through Google Earth. Am I right? The images, when you pan in 1st perspective, they just look flat with a little 3D dimension but still looks odd. Maybe you guys can improve that with your new 3D technology? anyway, great post! I’d like to research more on the topic!
I’ve seen in the above formulas. I am remembered! That is a mathematical formula that I’ve learned when still a high school.
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